Unlocking Antwerp: The Gruelling Fight for the Scheldt Estuary
The Gruelling Fight for the Scheldt Estuary
Bombardier C. A. Flanders writing a letter from the deck of his housboat on the Scheldt River, which is home for some of the gun crew
The Battle of the Scheldt, fought between September and November 1944, was a crucial Allied operation in northwestern Europe during the final phase of World War II. Conducted primarily by the First Canadian Army under Lieutenant-General Guy Simonds (acting while General Harry Crerar was ill), the battle included significant contributions from Polish, British, and other Allied forces. Despite capturing the city of Antwerp in early September, the port's strategic value was nullified because the long Scheldt estuary, leading to the North Sea, remained firmly in German hands. Control of this waterway was essential to Allied logistics, as Antwerp was the largest intact port in Western Europe, capable of handling 40,000 tons of cargo per day—a vital capacity as the Allies pushed deeper into Nazi-occupied territory.
Antwerp had been seized largely intact by the British 11th Armoured Division on September 4, 1944, aided by the Belgian Resistance’s White Brigade, which prevented its destruction. However, German forces retained control over the critical approaches, including the heavily fortified islands of Zuid-Beveland and Walcheren, which controlled artillery positions capable of destroying any Allied minesweeping efforts in the estuary. The Germans also used this window of delay to evacuate remnants of the 15th German Army, which fortified their positions and prepared for a determined defence.
Initially, little was done to clear the Scheldt in September, as Allied resources were diverted to other operations, notably Operation Market Garden and the sieges of Boulogne, Calais, and Dunkirk. Simonds, aware of the operational delays, recognized the necessity of opening Antwerp to supply the Allied advance into Germany. Montgomery, however, had prioritized the ill-fated Market Garden, leaving Simonds' forces overstretched and under-supported. The complex geography of the Scheldt region, characterized by narrow, flooded lowlands, polders, canals, and dykes, made the task even more daunting.
It wasn't until late September, after significant setbacks and logistical strain, that the full clearance of the Scheldt became the top priority. Over five weeks of gruelling fighting, often in flooded terrain and against fierce German resistance, the First Canadian Army suffered heavy losses, with 20,873 Allied casualties, of which 6,367 were Canadian. Nevertheless, by early November 1944, the Scheldt was finally cleared, allowing Antwerp to be opened for Allied shipping and playing a pivotal role in sustaining the final drive into Germany. The challenging terrain and harsh weather conditions of the Scheldt region would prove to be formidable obstacles for the Allied forces, compounding the difficulties they faced in this crucial operation.
Map showing the terrain in the Breskens Pocket area. While hard to see, the many polder areas are marked on the map, and are bisected by multitudes of ditches making movement often restricted to the major roads.
Terrain and Weather of the Scheldt Region
These challenging environmental conditions not only hindered Allied operations but also provided significant defensive advantages to the German forces entrenched in the region. The terrain of the Scheldt region played a defining role in the Battle of the Scheldt. The area is characterized by flat, low-lying land, much of it below sea level and protected by an extensive network of dykes, polders, and canals. These features, essential to Dutch agriculture and flood control, became obstacles during the battle, as the Germans deliberately flooded large portions of the landscape to hinder the Allied advance. This created vast marshes and mudflats, turning the ground into a quagmire that severely limited mobility, particularly for mechanized units and tanks.
In the Breskens Pocket, the terrain was highly restrictive. Located on the southern side of the Scheldt estuary, this area consisted of polder land, a patchwork of fields separated by drainage ditches, dykes, and canals. The Germans used these natural defences to their advantage, fortifying positions behind dykes and flooding large areas. The flat landscape also meant there was little cover for attacking infantry, making them vulnerable to entrenched German defenders.
To the north, in Zuid-Beveland and Walcheren Island, the situation was equally difficult. Zuid-Beveland is a narrow peninsula, with few access points, largely confined to a single narrow causeway. The canals and polders made lateral movement nearly impossible. Walcheren Island, a key defensive point for the Germans, was heavily fortified with coastal guns and artillery, which dominated the approaches to the Scheldt estuary. The terrain here was also flooded by after the Allied bombing of the dykes, leaving only a few raised roads or causeways that could be used for attacks.
The weather in October 1944 compounded the challenges posed by the terrain. The Allies faced a typically cold, wet autumn in the Netherlands. Heavy rains turned already difficult ground into deep mud, further hampering mobility and making it nearly impossible to use vehicles off the limited roads and causeways. Soldiers were often soaked through, with mud up to their knees, and forced to navigate flooded areas while under fire. These harsh conditions contributed to widespread exhaustion and battle fatigue which significantly diminished the effectiveness of the troops.
The combination of rain, cold temperatures, and strong winds exacerbated the misery of the fighting. Troops had to operate in waterlogged trenches or under open skies, with little protection from the elements. The already limited supply lines were stretched thin, making it difficult to provide dry clothing, food, and medical care to the front lines. As a result, the fighting during this period was not only physically gruelling but mentally taxing, contributing to the high rate of combat fatigue among Allied forces.
The Enemy Situation in the Scheldt Area (1944)
The 15th German Army was comprised of several key units:
64th Infantry Division – which had a reputation as one of the better-equipped and well-trained German divisions the Allies had encountered. This division was tasked with defending the Breskens Pocket, the heavily fortified area south of the Scheldt.
70th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht) – known as the "White Bread Division" because its soldiers suffered from stomach disorders that required special rations. Despite these issues, the division was well dug-in on Walcheren Island and the Zuid-Beveland peninsula, making use of coastal artillery, anti-tank positions, and other fortifications.
6th Parachute Regiment – another well-regarded unit, based on South Beveland, provided additional strength to the German defences.
These German units made use of the difficult terrain—including dykes, canals, and flooded lowlands—to set up strong defensive positions. The terrain favoured the defenders, as narrow causeways and flooded fields limited the routes of attack available to the Allies.
The German 15th Army’s Evacuation
One of the German priorities during the early stages of the Scheldt campaign was to evacuate the 15th Army across the Scheldt estuary to more defensible positions in the Netherlands. While the Allies focused on Antwerp and other fronts, the Germans managed to evacuate tens of thousands of soldiers, along with equipment, across the estuary. This evacuation was a significant success for the Germans, as it allowed them to reinforce their defences and prepare for the inevitable Allied assault. With the German forces firmly established in their defensive positions, the Allies launched Operation Switchback, the first major offensive to clear the Breskens Pocket and gain control of the southern Scheldt estuary.
Operation Switchback
The operations to clear the Breskens Pocket and gain control of the southern Scheldt estuary began on October 6, 1944, with an assault on the Leopold Canal, a critical defensive line held by the Germans. This sector was defended primarily by the 64th German Infantry Division, a well-regarded unit with fortified positions along the canal’s northern bank. The Canadian 3rd Infantry Division, supported by massive artillery, began Operation Switchback with a difficult amphibious assault across the canal. The assault companies crossed the wide, heavily defended waterway in boats, facing intense fire from entrenched German positions. 327 artillery guns were deployed in support of the attack, while 27 Wasp flamethrower vehicles provided additional support, attempting to break through the strong defensive lines.
NNSH Aerial image of Haringzelles
The 7th Canadian Infantry Brigade led the crossing, establishing a precarious bridgehead on the northern bank of the canal. Despite the success in securing a foothold, German counterattacks were fierce, and the Canadian forces were subjected to sustained artillery and machine gun fire. The Canadian Scottish Regiment and The Regina Rifles faced particularly brutal resistance. On October 10, the Regina Rifles' Medical Officer noted the scale of the casualties: “between 250 and 300 casualties” had passed through the aid posts since the operation began, and fighting was so intense that grenades were being thrown at the enemy from as close as 10 yards. Continuous German infiltration attempts kept the front line in a state of constant tension. Canadian artillery laid down 2,000 shells in just 90 minutes, and the Regina Rifles' mortar platoon fired over 1,000 rounds in three hours to suppress German positions.
On October 9, as part of the effort to outflank the German positions, an amphibious assault was launched from Ghent using Buffalo amphibious vehicles. Two columns of 48 Buffaloes carried assault forces, including the North Nova Scotia Highlanders (NNSH) and the Highland Light Infantry (HLI), to the shores east of Hoofdplaat, landing behind German lines in the Breskens Pocket. This rear assault was a critical manoeuvre to support the main crossing at the Leopold Canal. The NNSH landed on Green Beach at 2 AM, while the HLI arrived at Amber Beach at the same time. By October 11, additional reinforcements, including the 7th Reconnaissance Regiment, helped secure the position.
By October 12, after several days of heavy fighting, the Leopold Canal was finally secured, but the battle for the Breskens Pocket continued. The Canadian forces faced dogged resistance from the German defenders, who were running low on supplies but fought tenaciously from fortified positions. On October 21, the Stormont, Dundas and Glengarry Highlanders (SDG) cleared out the town of Breskens, marking a turning point in the battle. The North Nova Scotia Highlanders took Fort Frederik on October 25, after a German deserter revealed that only 23 Germans remained inside. The remaining defenders surrendered without further resistance. By October 26, the Queen’s Own Rifles (QOR) had captured Oostburg, and the Breskens Pocket was effectively closed by November 3, though at a high cost: 2,077 Canadian casualties, including 314 killed.
Map trace showing the plans for the Amphibious Assault into the rear of the Breskens Pocket.
Securing access to Beveland
The battle to secure access to South Beveland required the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division to first capture the strategically vital town of Woensdrecht, located at the narrow entrance to the South Beveland peninsula. The division, however, was suffering from low morale and a severe shortage of trained infantry. Only three of its battalions had four full-strength companies, and many of the reinforcements lacked proper training. The Royal Hamilton Light Infantry (RHLI), for example, had only two officers for four companies, while the Black Watch battalion was filled with barely trained soldiers. Of the 159 men newly assigned to the Black Watch, only 46 had more than two months of training, while 14 had none at all. The battalion’s second-in-command grimly reported that many of the reinforcements had never fired a Bren light machine gun or handled grenades, and few knew how to use the PIAT anti-tank weapon.
Cartoon from the Black Watch war diaries October 1944
The first major push toward Woensdrecht began on October 6, 1944, as the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division launched an assault to capture the critical town, which controlled access to the South Beveland Peninsula. The Germans, primarily from the 6th Parachute Regiment, were well entrenched and fully aware of Woensdrecht's strategic importance. The town was located on higher ground, and the German defenders used the flooded fields and elevated positions to their advantage. The Canadian advance was slow, and the difficult terrain—crisscrossed with dykes, polders, and mines—made any forward movement costly, with heavy German artillery and machine-gun fire slowing the assault.
On October 13, the Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment of Canada) spearheaded a renewed effort to capture Woensdrecht, but they faced even more intense resistance from the entrenched Germans. The following day, October 14, marked what became known as Black Friday for the Black Watch. In one of the bloodiest days of the campaign, the battalion advanced over exposed terrain under heavy artillery and machine-gun fire. The German forces, particularly the 6th Parachute Regiment, were relentless in their defense. The Black Watch suffered 145 killed or mortally wounded, with another 62 wounded and 27 captured, decimating the battalion’s strength.
The human cost of the battle was starkly illustrated on this day, as the Black Watch Regiment withdrew after a gruelling 24-hours. Brigadier W.J. Megill ordered the retreat at 0100 hours, and exhausted men crowded into carriers and jeeps for the perilous journey back across muddy dykes. One soldier was found sound asleep atop a pile of equipment, his disconnected earphones askew—a poignant image of utter fatigue. The grim tally showed some companies losing over a third of their strength. Upon return, the men were given a hot meal before collapsing into deep sleep, allowed to rest through lunch. In a touch of dark irony, that evening's scheduled movie, "We Die at Dawn," was hastily replaced with something "in much lighter vein," a small but telling effort to maintain morale amidst the harsh realities of war.
As the battle for Woensdrecht dragged on, the infantry shortages became more acute. Reinforcements continued to arrive with inadequate training, and the veterans who remained were worn down from continuous combat. Despite these challenges, Canadian artillery and air support pounded German positions, and the infantry pressed forward. The streets and fields around Woensdrecht were littered with wreckage and the bodies of the fallen as both sides fought fiercely for control. By October 16, the Canadians finally managed to seize parts of the high ground around Woensdrecht, but the battle was far from over.
It wasn’t until October 23 that the town and surrounding areas were finally cleared of German forces, allowing the Canadians to push further toward South Beveland. The battle had taken a heavy toll on the 2nd Canadian Division, which had been badly depleted in both manpower and morale. The capture of Woensdrecht, however, was crucial for securing the narrow access route to South Beveland, setting the stage for the eventual clearing of the peninsula and the subsequent assault on Walcheren Island. With Woensdrecht finally secured and the narrow access to South Beveland open, the stage was set for the next phase of the offensive: Operation Vitality.
Operation Vitality
Operation Vitality began at 4:30 AM on October 24, 1944, as the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division initiated its assault on South Beveland, supported by elements of the 10th Armoured Regiment and 8th Reconnaissance Regiment. The attack started with a heavy 30-minute artillery barrage from seven field and medium artillery regiments, which softened German defences. The Royal Regiment of Canada (RRC) led the initial push, making rapid gains, but soon encountered trouble as they advanced through areas riddled with mines and thick mud, which slowed progress considerably. The Essex Scottish Regiment, advancing along a railway line, faced strong German resistance, losing several tanks and reconnaissance cars to well-placed anti-tank guns. Meanwhile, the Royal Hamilton Light Infantry (RHLI) pressed forward towards Rilland, but their advance was similarly hampered by German defences.
By October 26, the 4th Canadian Infantry Brigade, having endured heavy casualties and exhaustion from the relentless fighting, could not continue and was forced to halt. The 6th Brigade took over, continuing the attack towards the Beveland Canal. Despite the challenges, the Canadians continued to push, aiming to break through the final German defences and secure a crossing over the canal. On the same day, to relieve pressure on the advancing Canadian forces and outflank the German defenders, an amphibious assault was launched by the 52nd (Lowland) Division. The 156th Infantry Brigade landed at two beaches near Hoedekenskerke, capturing the town of Oudelande after facing fierce resistance.
The amphibious landing forced the Germans to redirect resources and attention, easing some of the pressure on the Canadians advancing from the front. This maneuver effectively outflanked the German positions along the Beveland Canal. With the combined efforts of the Canadians on the ground and the British forces landing on the beaches, the German defences began to falter. By the 27th of October, Canadian forces were approaching the Beveland Canal, and the German hold on South Beveland was weakening.
Even as Operations Vitality and Infatuate were being planned, Allied air power had already begun targeting Walcheren Island, the final obstacle in opening the Scheldt estuary. This strategic bombing campaign, initiated weeks before the ground assault, aimed to weaken German defences and reshape the battlefield in favour of the Allied forces.
Bombing of Walcheren
The bombing of Walcheren Island in October 1944 was a crucial part of the Allied plan to breach the German defences controlling the Scheldt estuary and ultimately open the port of Antwerp. The island was heavily fortified, with coastal guns that dominated the approaches to the estuary, making it impossible for Allied ships to use Antwerp. To neutralize these defences, the Allies devised a plan to breach the dykes surrounding Walcheren, flooding the island and forcing the Germans to abandon their fixed positions. Prior to the bombing, leaflets were dropped over the island, urging civilians to evacuate. The first major air raid took place on October 3, when 240 heavy bombers targeted the dykes at Westkapelle, resulting in 180 civilian casualties despite the warnings.
The bombing continued on October 7 and October 11, targeting the southern dykes and further flooding the island. The destruction of the dykes allowed seawater to pour into Walcheren, flooding the lower areas and isolating the German defenders on small pockets of high ground. While the flooding significantly weakened the German defensive positions and made it difficult for them to manoeuvre, it also devastated the local population and infrastructure. The bombing and subsequent flooding were instrumental in setting the stage for Operation Infatuate, the amphibious assault that ultimately cleared the island and secured the Scheldt estuary. With Walcheren Island partially flooded and German defences compromised, Allied forces prepared for the next phase: a ground assault to secure the island.
R.A.F. Bomber Command bombing they Dykes of Walcheren
Operation Infatuate I
On the night of October 31, 1944, the 4th Canadian Infantry Brigade launched an assault on the east end of the causeway, led by the Royal Regiment of Canada (RRC). The attack was successful in securing a foothold at the eastern end, but progress was slow and costly. German defenders, heavily fortified with artillery and machine guns, turned the causeway into a deathtrap, inflicting severe casualties on the Canadians trying to push further along the narrow strip.
On November 1, 1944, after the Black Watch had attempted and failed to make progress across the Walcheren Causeway, Brigadier Megill ordered the Calgary Highlanders to renew the assault. As the Highlanders advanced across the exposed causeway, they faced extremely heavy fire from German artillery, mortars, and machine guns. The Germans had carefully registered their artillery on the narrow strip of land, and their shelling was both intense and precise. At one point, an 88-mm gun was seen to ricochet shells down the causeway itself, a terrifying display that severely impacted the morale of the advancing troops. Despite these challenges, the Calgary Highlanders fought their way forward, but by the afternoon, they were pinned down just 300 yards from the western end of the causeway.
Message from the Black Watch about the situation on the Causeway.
As night fell on November 1, the situation remained dire. The leading companies of the Calgary Highlanders had established a defensive position near a massive crater left by German shellfire, but any further advance seemed impossible. Already, the Highlanders had suffered significant losses, with dozens killed or wounded in the initial push. The Germans, well entrenched in the dykes flanking the causeway, launched a series of determined counterattacks to dislodge the Canadians.
In response, Megill ordered his last reserve battalion, Le Régiment de Maisonneuve, to move up and relieve the exhausted Highlanders. At 4:00 AM on November 2, under the cover of heavy artillery fire from three medium and three field regiments, the Maisonneuves launched their attack. Although they managed to push to within 200 yards of the western end of the causeway, they were met with the same fierce resistance that had greeted the previous attempts. The Maisonneuves suffered heavy casualties, with reports indicating that one company alone lost half its strength in the first hours of the assault.
As the Maisonneuves struggled to maintain their position, the Calgary Highlanders found themselves unable to fully withdraw from the battle. What had begun as a quick assault turned into a gruelling 40-hour ordeal. Along this narrow 2000-yard strip, every inch was contested with a ferocity that defied description. The causeway became a killing field, with Canadian casualties mounting steadily. By the end of the second day, it was estimated that over 100 men had been killed or seriously wounded in the relentless fighting.
Aerial image showing the Walcheren Causeway in the top left corner. Members of the 5th Brigade attacked from the eastern side of the causeway.
Amidst this chaos, a scene of surreal normality unfolded. An RCE Bulldozer operator, seemingly oblivious to the danger, calmly worked to fill a massive crater blocking the Allied advance. Nearby, a sapper, with an air of casual inquiry, asked if a party of nine men should attempt to remove a roadblock. Warned of the extreme danger, he replied with grim humour, "Well, the Calgary Highlanders are out there to protect us." This moment of mundane bravery and dark wit threw into sharp relief the bizarre reality of war, where routine tasks collided with mortal peril on a devastated causeway.
By November 2, after two days of gruelling combat and with little ground gained, the Canadians were forced to reassess their strategy. The combined losses of the Calgary Highlanders, the Black Watch, and Le Régiment de Maisonneuve had reached a critical point, with total casualties approaching 135 dead and many more wounded. Recognizing the pointlessness of continued frontal assaults, the Canadian command made the difficult decision to withdraw from the causeway, handing over control to the 1st Battalion Glasgow Highlanders of the British 52nd (Lowland) Division.
Recognizing the futility of a direct frontal assault, British commanders proposed an alternative: a flanking amphibious landing at Nieuwdorp, 3 kilometers south of the causeway. This manoeuvre allowed the British forces to bypass the heavily fortified positions and link up with the Glasgow Highlanders, opening the way to rest of Walcheren Island.
Special report on Casualties sustained by the Black Watch Below
Operation Infatuate II
Operation Infatuate II, the amphibious assault on Walcheren Island, commenced in the early hours of November 1, 1944. The plan involved the 4th Special Service Brigade, comprising No. 41, 47, and 48 Royal Marine Commandos, along with No. 10 (Inter Allied) Commando, which included Belgian and Norwegian troops. The Commandos were to land on either side of a gap blown in the dyke at Westkapelle: No. 41 Commando attacking from the north to clear Westkapelle and move northward, and No. 48 from the south advancing toward Zoutelande. Specialized armoured vehicles from the 79th Armoured Division, such as M29 Weasels and Buffaloes, were launched from Landing Craft Tanks to support the assault. Naval support was substantial, featuring the battleship HMS Warspite and monitors HMS Erebus and HMS Roberts, along with the Support Squadron Eastern Flank (SSEF).
As the assault force approached the island, naval ships bombarded German defences with heavy artillery and rocket fire. German coastal batteries responded fiercely, concentrating their fire on the support landing craft. A significant incident occurred when a rocket-firing landing craft was hit, causing it to inadvertently fire rockets into nearby friendly vessels, resulting in casualties. Despite intense enemy fire and the loss of several support vessels, the Commandos pressed on. The Royal Air Force provided crucial air support with Typhoon fighter-bombers engaging German positions. The SSEF drew much of the enemy fire away from the landing craft but suffered heavy casualties, with many of their vessels sunk or damaged.
Upon landing, No. 41 Commando overran enemy pillboxes and, with tank support, neutralized a battery of four 94 mm guns before advancing north along the dyke. No. 48 Commando faced stiff resistance from a 150 mm gun battery; their leading troop commander was killed, and they required artillery and air support to silence the enemy position. No. 10 (Inter Allied) Commando fought fiercely to clear Domburg despite heavy opposition and casualties. Supply issues arose due to the difficulty of landing stores, but parachute drops on November 5 provided much-needed relief. By November 3, No. 47 Commando overcame strongpoints at Dishoek and linked up with No. 4 Commando, and the combined forces continued their advance against determined German resistance.
After a two-day pause at Zoutelande for resupply, Nos. 4, 47, and 48 Commandos prepared to eliminate the remaining German resistance northwest of Domburg. On November 8, Nos. 4 and 48 Commandos set off on foot—using landing vehicles to cross the gap at Westkapelle—to reinforce Nos. 10 and 41 Commandos. While No. 41 Commando assaulted the last operational German battery, W19, No. 4 Commando cleared the Overduin woods and advanced toward Vrouwenpolder opposite North Beveland, with No. 48 Commando held in reserve. At 08:15, German envoys approached to negotiate a surrender, leading to the capitulation of 40,000 German troops. Over eight days of intense fighting, the 4th Special Service Brigade suffered significant losses: 103 killed, 325 wounded, and 68 missing. Despite the casualties, the operation successfully neutralized German defences in the region, and by the end of November, after an extensive minesweeping operation in the Scheldt estuary, the first cargo ships began unloading at the port of Antwerp, bolstering the Allied supply chain for the continued advance into occupied Europe.
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